We checked out of our hostel around 10:00am, and I was quite pleased with the success of this hostel, because both nights the other four people in the room were guys, so I was quite worried about snoring, but there was only a brief snoring episode on Friday night. So I got plenty of sleep over the weekend, which made the entire trip more enjoyable. So thank God for that!
After we checked out and put our luggage in the luggage room (because we didn't want to be carrying it around all day) we walked to the national museum, but turns out on Sunday's it's only open from 2-5 so we walked to Dublin Castle, which opened at noon, and we got there around 11ish so we walked around the outside of it for an hour, and once it opened we got a tour of the inside.
More Pictures of the City
Dublin Castle
This is the only remain original tower. I forget in which year the rest was caught on fire, and to stop the fire they used explosives to cut it off from reaching the remaining castle. So much of it was burned though that they just rebuilt most of it.
The Chapel Royal:
The chapel was designed by Francis Johnston and opened by Lord Lieutenant Whitworth at Christmas 1814. It replaced an earlier church.It is an exceptional example of Gothic revival architecture and functioned as the King's Chapel in Ireland as well as that of the Viceroy, his household and officials.
The oak galleries and stained-glass chancel windows display the coat of arms of successive Justiciars, Lord Deputies, and Lord Lieutenants- Viceregal titles which succeeded each other over time. That of De Lacy (1171) occupies the first space and remarkably, the final available place is taken by that of FitzAlan- Howard (1921-22) The last Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
The Record Tower
This is the last intact medieval tower, not only of the castle but also of Dublin City.It was the mightiest of the Norman corner towers. With 4.6m (15ft) thick walls, it was highly suited to its function as a top security jail for State prisoners.
The most famous of all escapes from Dublin Castle took place here on 6th January 1592, when Red Hugh O'Donnell and Art and Henry O'Neill, sons of Ulster Chieftains who were being held hostage on the orders of Lord Deputy Perrot, made their successful getaway through the toilet chute.
Bram Stoker (1847-1912)
The author of Dracula worked here (picture below) from 1866-1878 in the Registrar of Petty Sessions Clerks, which was attached to the Chief Secretary's Office.His father, Abraham, had previously worked here for more than 50 years. Bram was also part-time theatre critic for the Dublin Even Mail, which was co-owned by the famous Gothic horror writer, Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu, whose writing were inspirational to him.
On promotion to Clerk of Inspections, Brian's meticulous research of the enormous mass of accumulated documents resulted in his first published book, The Dutties of Petty Sessions in Irleand, which he later described as being 'dry as dust.'
Powder Tower: Viking and Norman Defences:
Beneath this building, features uncovered during an archaeological excavation in 1986 are on view, including: part of a stone faced Viking defensive bank; the massive remains of the 13th century North-East corner tower of the late castle (later known as the Powder Tower); as postern gate; past of the castle moat and the junction between the town wall and the castle.
It became the most important fortification in Ireland and functioned as the seat of English rule and the center of military, political, and social affairs. At various times it housed the Chief Governors of Ireland, Treasury, War Office, Privy Council, Courts of Justice and the Parliament. It remained in continuous occupation and was adapted to suit changing requirements, in particular the great fire of 1684 when it became a palace rather than a fortress.
It was here, on 16 January 1922, that Micheal Collins received the handover on behalf of the new Irish Government.
The State Apartments dominate the southern range, the Conference Center occupies the western cross block and north range, and the Revenue Commissioners are situated in the area centered on the former Chief Secretary's office in the north-east corner.
The State Apartments (1680-1830 AD)
Formerly the residential and ceremonial quarters of the Viceroys (Deputies of the British Monarch) and the Viceregal Court, and the focus of fashionable social life, they are now the most important ceremonial rooms in Ireland.The State Apartments include the former State Bedrooms, the Drawing and Throne Rooms, the Portrait Gallery, St. Patrick's Hall, and George's Hall.
St. Patrick's Hall is the focal point for prestige State functions, including the inauguration of Irish Presidents. George's Hall was built as a Supper Hall for the visit of King George V in 1911. The next such visit by a reigning British monarch, and the first since Irish Independence, was that of Queen Elizabeth II in 2011.
Dublin Castle Conference Center
These international conference facilities were custom built behind this facade in an area formerly occupied by the medieval moat.The main conference hall is partly supported by the excavated base of the Corke Tower, which can be seen from its roof garden. Also visible here is the new moat pool, where arcade of the former La Touche Bank (1735) was re-sited to form a cloistered walkway.
Entrance to the adjoining 18th century West Range Suite is through the doorway immediately to the left.
The Hiberna Roof Garden can be accessed through the Crossblock gateway.
The Conference Office doorway is immediately to the left of the Crossblock gateway.
Gates of Fortitude and Justice
Erected in 1750, this is a pair of massive inner arches which flank the Bedford Tower and provide symmetry to the north side of the courtyard.The gates are surmounted by the leading sculptures Fortitude and Justice, by John van Nost the younger. The gate Fortitude was opened up during the construction of the Conference Center. The adjoining La Touche Bridge spans the moat pool and provides a second entrance from Castle Street. Justice is the main ceremonial gateway into Dublin Castle.
The children's court was situated at ground and first-floor levels of the adjacent building from 1941-1981.
Bedford Tower, 1761 AD
This is the centrepiece of the north side of the Upper Courtyard, which is one of the most beautiful architectural compositions in Dublin.It was occupied successively by the Dean of the Chapel Royal, the Second Secretary, the Master of Ceremonies and the Viceroy's aide-de-camps. The balcony was used by State musicians.
In 1907 the diamond Chains of Office of the Knights of St. Patrick were stolen from the ground-floor library of the then Office of Arms. The mystery of what became known as the missing 'Irish Crown Jewels' has never been solved.
This is now the Bedford Hall Suite and Castle Hall conference facilities.
Cork Hill Gate
Three of the first fatalities of the 1916 Rising occurred at this Gate.Constable James O'Brien was short shortly before 12 noon, on 24th April, as he tried to slam the gate shut on an advancing rebel troop of Citizen Army fighters. Following a skirmish at the adjoining Guard House (where bayonet marks made by the sentries can still be plainly seen), they withdrew to nearby City Hall.
There, Captain Sean Connolly of the Citizen Army, professional Actor, was hit by sniper fire from soldiers on the roof of Bedford Tower.
Later, Lieutenant Guy Pinfield of the Royal Irish Hussars was killed by rebel fire while leading troop reinforcements from the Curragh camp.
The Norman Castle was built within the south-east corner of the pre-existing Viking town (Dyflinn), which had been founded in the 10th century at the junction of the River Liffey and the River Poddle. It is most likely that a Gaelic ring fort existed previously on this site.
Dublin gets its name from the Dubhlinn (Black Pool in
Gaelic) harbour, which occupied the site of the present Dubhlinn Gardens.
Although much of the present architecture dates from the 18th century, sections
of the original moat, curtain, and Viking town walls, as well as the Record
Tower and the bases of the other massive corner towers are still visible.
Today the Upper Castle Yard, where the handover of power to
the new Irish State took place in 1922, corresponds clearly with the original
Castle.
Castle Hall
The causeway entrance to the 13th century Dublin Castle lies
under this building on the North South axis. The Bedford Tower was built on the
medieval entrance towers. This building, comprising of the former Genealogoical
Office and Guard House, together with ther extension on the site of the former
La Touche Bank, has been renamed Castle Hall.
History of the Castle
References indicate that there was a castle on this site from around 1170 when the Angle- Norman first captured Dublin. However, the massive rectangular castle that stood here until the late 17th century was built as a result of a mandate issued by King John to Meiler Fitz-Henry, Justicer of Ireland, in 1204. Tradition accredits most of the building work to a successor of Meiler's, Henry de Londres, who was also archbishop of Dublin. The building was well advanced by 1228 when records show payment to carpenters and masons for the construction of towers and leaden gutters. The great hall, shown on some 17th century plans, was built as a result of a royal order of 1243.The castle was bult as teh residence and cheif fortress of hte King's deputy in Ireland, to hold the King's treasure, to assist in the defence of Dublin and for the administration of justice. In effect it became the administrative center and symbol of the King's power in Ireland. Courts of law and parliaments were held in the great hall and at times the exchequer and mint were located in the castle. The "Powder Tower" located here derived its name from its use as an munitions and gun powder store in the 17th century.
The castle was also used to hold important prisoners and hostages, many of whom languished for years in its dreary cells. The most celebrated escapes were were those of Red Hugh O'Donnell and 1591 and 1592. After the first escape he was recaptured. The second time he and his companions escaped by lowering themselves through a privy into the moat, then across it and out through the town gates to the Wicklow mountains. Executions were sometimes carried out at the castle and the heads of rebels were displayed impaled on spears over the gateway.
The castle was besieged only once, during the Silken Thomas Rebellion in 1534, when it was bombarded from the north and south-west sides but not captured. It suffered much neglect during the 15th and 16th centuries when the King's deputy usually resided elsewhere but returned to prominence after 1566, when the Lord Deputy, Henry Sidney, built a new residence within the castle and generally refurbished it.
The gate house was rebuilt in 1617 and the north-west corner tower (later known as Corke Tower) was totally rebuilt after it collapsed in 1624. A serious fire broke out in the castle in 1684 and while some of the buildings were burnt, more were blown up to prevent the fire reaching the gun powder stored in the Powder Tower. As a result plans were drawn up for a palatial quadrangle of buildings to replace the medieval castle and this quadrangle, the present Upper Yard, was not completed until about 1750. The Powder Tower was reduced to its present level in 1711 and buried beneath buildings. It was exposed during archeological excavations in 1986.
The Norman Castle
The early 13th century castle was a large, roughly rectangular, walled enclosure with towers at the corners and an entrance in the middle of the north side. The Poddle river protected the south and east sides, but on the north and west sides a moat was cut, 20 meters wide and 12 meters deep, providing much of the building stone for the castle. Being below high tide level, the depth of water in the moat fluctuated with the tide.Because Dublin Castle was built within and formed the south-east corner of the tower, the circuit of the town wall had to be tied to it. Originally the wall was carried across the moat on large arches allowing the tide to flow through the moat. At this corner small boats could have gained access to the moat, at least at high tide, to deliver goods or personnel to the castle through the postern steps in the north curtain wall beside the Powder Tower. These steps were discovered during excavations in 1962 and are not visible as part of the presentation.
To prevent the tide from undermining the north-west corner of the castle or for security reasons the arches in the city wall crossing the moat were blocked up with masonry by later medieval times. This fact and the silting up of the moat and dumping of rubbish in it by Dublin citizens left it far shallower and narrower by the 16th century. It probably had no depth of water in it and was merely foul and muddy when Red Hugh O'Donnell escaped across if from the outlet of a privy or garderobe in 1562. By the later 17th century it was almost completely filled with rubbish. The moat layers, dating from the 13th century up until the early 18th produced a wide range of finds. Organic materials such as wood and leather were well preserved in the lower waterlogged layers.
The lower parts of the walls of the castle, both towers and curtain walls, were battered or sloped outwards for extra strength. The Powder Tower was described in 1585 as 5 stories high with a spiral stair within the thickness of the wall on the west side. 14th century artefacts found in the tower (iron and bronze offcuts, rivet heads, nails, buckles, etc.) indicate that it was probably used for the making or repair of armor.
The Excavation
Because of the structural failure at foundation level the eighteenth and nineteenth century buildings that stood here had to be demolished and rebuilt. The archeological excavation in this area of the castle (Blocks 8-10) was carried out in a six month period between July 1986 and January 1987 after the old buildings had been demolished apart from the facade facing the Upper Yard. (The excavation was carried out by the National Monuments Section, Office of Public Works.)This excavation was the last of a series carried out over a two-year period in connection with major restoration and rebuilding works along the west and north side of the Upper Yard of Dublin Castle. Excavations were only carried out where the new foundations would disturb archaeological layers and these areas were concentrated along the moat outside the west and north walls of the medieval castle. The very great depth of this moat presented difficulties. The sides of the deeper cuttings had to be stepped for safety of the excavators and the stability of surrounding buildings. Below the natural watertable pumps kept the cuttings dry.
Artefacts and features dating from the Viking settlement of the 10th century to the 18th and 19th centuries were uncovered. Some of the 100,000 finds recovered during the excavations are on display in this room.
Because of the importance and visually impressive nature of the structures found in this corner of the castle, the substructure of the new building was redesigned and pubic access to them facilitated.
National Museum of History
After the castle my roommate and I grabbed a quick lunch at McDonalds (what a fancy Irish meal :p) and then headed over to the National Museum of History, which was pretty cool. I prefer landscapes and castle but it was still interesting, and of course there is a ton of information, and the sad part is this is probably about half of what was in the museum, but my camera died, and we only had 3 hours, which we didn't use all 3 hours because we were pretty tired. We had been walking around all weekend, and I mean all weekend. Friday night we were walking from about 4 to 9:30ish, Saturday we walked from about 10am to 5:30pm and then we went out for dinner later that night, and Sunday we had been walking since 9:30am. So we were tired. lol
Convex base tilted on mirrored glass reveals intricate carvings. Delicate handle hints at tiny fingers seeking a hold on life and failing (that's depressing) Incense, Perfume, corn? Offerings to the gods? For safe journey to another world.
Burial in the Earlier Bronze Age I (2500-1900 BC)
The earliest construction of the communal megalithic graves called Wedge Tombs dates probably to around the time when metalworking was first practiced in Ireland. The construction of such tombs gradually ceased around 2200 BC and was replaced by separate burials of one or more persons. In one form or another this continued as the main burial site for at least the next thousand years. The earlier of these burials which seldom numbered more than a few individuals were in either simple pits or in stone-lined graves known as cists. The unburnt bodies were placed usually in a crouched position. Sometimes, however, the remains were cremated. Highly decorated pots known as food vessels and very occasionally other personal possessions were placed in the graves, which are found both singly and in small cemeteries. In some cases, special mounds were used called raised cemeteries or cemetery mounds. Sometimes earlier burial mounds were re-used. A few graves are marked by standing stones, but in general it is not known whether graves had headstones or other markers or how cemeteries were defined.
Not a really grave or anything. Just a reconstruction
Burial in the Earlier Bronze Age 3 (2500-1500 BC)
Cist Burials were usually two basic forms. There were short, rectangular or trapezoid graves or polygonal graves. Cists were constructed by digging a pit and setting up the side-and end-stones. They were covered by a capstone and sometimes had paved floors. After burial had taken place and the capstone was placed in position, the pit was filled in and was sometimes covered with a mound of earth. Occasionally, the grave was enclosed by a circular ditch. Rectangular or trapezoid cists were used for both burnt and unburnt burials but their use waned as cremation became the preferred burial rite. Polygonal cists to the end of the Earlier Bronze Age, at which stage simple unprotected pits became fashionable. Food Vessels are found more commonly in rectangular and trapezoid cists while large urns occur more often in polygonal cists and simple pits, although neither combination is exclusive.
Development in Early Metalworking (2500-1100 BC)
The earliest metal objects were cold-hammered from pure copper and gold. Inevitably, the availability of metal tools led to the abandonment of stone implements. The development of better metalworking techniques led first so casting in single-piece and then later, two-piece stone molds and to mixing or alloying copper with tin 10 produce harder bronze. Advances in metalworking resulted in the production of tools, weapons and ornaments of increasing complexity. Early efforts concentrated on developing effective ways of hafting or securing these objects, mainly axes, to their handles. Initially, this was done by means of flanges- raised edges-which ensured a more secure grip. At first, these were produced by hammering but later they were cast in two-place molds. Small bronze razors are found in Cordoned Um burials and the molds used in their production were also used to make a grange of tools and weapons including rapiers, knives, sickles and spearheads. By the Middle Bronze Age experimentation led to the development of socketed tools.
The Lissan Rapier
This rapier (picture below) was found in the last century during turf cutting at Lissan, Co Derry. It is the longest rapier known from Bronze Age Europe. Because of its extreme length and delicacy, which bear witness to the great technical mastery of Irish smiths during the Middle Bronze Age, it has been suggested that the object was used for ceremonial and display purposed only. It was cast in a two-piece stone mold and was finished by hammering. Originally it had a handle of wood or some other organic material held in place by a pair of rivets. Rapiers were thrusting and stabbing weapons, unlike the later swords which were used for slashing.
The River Shannon
Large numbers of Bronze Age weapons have been recovered from different locations on the river. Some are likely to represent ritual offerings to the gods by the act of casting them in the waters of the river.
The Middle Bronze Age (1500 - 1200 BC)
The most numerous field monuments which survive from the Middle Bronze Age period are known as Fulachta Fiadh. These are visible in the landscape as low, horseshoe shaped mounds, invariably located in wet or marshy ground. At the time of their use the monuments consisted of a water-filled trough of wood or stone which was heated by adding hot stones. The surrounding mounds contain the shattered stones removed from the troughs. Fulachta Fiadh may have been used mainly for cooking or for bathing although industrial uses or a ritual function cannot be ruled out.Circular houses of post construction are known from this period, as are funerary monuments. The cremated remains of the dead were sometimes placed in undecorated urns, often buried at the center of small ring ditches. Burials are also found, without urns, in graves called boulder burials- structures made of boulders in the manner of small megalithic tombs. The construction of stone circles and alignments is evidence for ritual activity. Further evidence of ritual may be provided by boulder burials, by the large and distinctive gold ornaments such as force and by imported amber beads, although these might be seen equally as evidence for increasing social stratification. In metal-working, the use of two-piece molds of stone and later of clay, together with the use of solder, allowed for significant improvements in the form and range of objects which could be made. A wide variety of bronze weapons and tools were manufactured, some of which were extremely large. Spearheads of various forms were used as were rapiers, axes of the type known as paistaves and a range of smaller tools.
Change in the Middle and Later Bronze Age (1200 BC onwards)
From about 1200 BC onwards chronic deterioration, together with other factors, is thought to have been responsible for widespread change. Groups of small circular houses of post-and-wattle construction were often enclosed by earthen banks, stone walls or wooden palisades. These features together with the siting of some settlements on small islands, promontories of lake edges, suggest a time of insecurity. Later, the construction of defended hill-top architectures during the final period of the Bronze Age and the production of vast numbers of weapons, especially swords, reinforces this view. On Middle and Later Bronze Age settlements, crude and coarsely made pottery was used for cooking and storage and also as container for the bones of the cremated dead. The wet environments of some of these settlements led to the presentation of more wooden structures and objects than in earlier times. Wooden bowls and platters and larger items such as cauldrons and shields provide ample evidence of expert carpentry. Part of a Later Bronze Age woolen garment with sophisticated horse hair tassels from Cromaghs, Co Antrim shows expertise in weaving. Throughout the later stages of the Bronze Age there was an increase in the range of bronze socketed tools both for general purpose and specialist work. These were all made in clay molds, fragments of which are found sometimes on excavated settlements sties.
Later Bronze Age Metalworking and Music (1200-500 BC)
The Later Bronze Age was a period of exceptional technological mastery by Irish metal smiths. The addition of lead of bronze and the use of clay molds enabled large sophisticated objects, such as horns, to be produced using complex casting techniques. The horns are the oldest known musical instruments from Ireland and both side-blown and end-blown examples were made. The two types are usually found together, suggesting that the may have been played in pairs, perhaps implying the same techinque used to play the Australian didjeridu. The honrs, otgether with objects knows as crotals (which were found with them in the Dowris Hoard) may have been used in the rites of fertility cult associated with the bull. Traces of the cult which appears to have its origins in the Mediterranean may be detected in the early medival tale Tain Bo Cuailgne( Cattle Raid of Cooley) which features magical bulls.
Burial During the Later Bronze Age
During the Later Bronze Age, the practice of placing the cremated remains of the dead within course pottery vessel or unprotected in pits seems to have continued. These burials may have been covered by a low, mound surrounded by a shallow circular ditch. Within a hillfort at Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, a shallow ditch enclosed an area which contained three cremation burials. The central burial was placed within a stone- lined pit which, it appears, was once surrounded by a large number of wooden stakes. Nearby were the cremated remains of a child, interred in a small pit. The third burial contained cremated remains which had been placed in a bucket-shaped coarse pottery vessel. This was covered by a small stone slab. A further pit within the ditched area contained a fragment of a sword blade, an incomplete spearhead and a chisel or graving tool.
Hoards
A notable aspect of society during the Middle and Later Bronze Age was the practice of despositing large hoards of metal objects. There are many interpretations as to why these hoards may have been deposited Some my have been deposited ritually as offering to appease the gods while others may simply represent private possessions hidden in times of danger and not retrieved. Hoards containing scrap metal may have been founders hoards, collected for re-processing, while those which appear to contain trade goods may represent merchants' hoards. The very large number of hoards and single objects found in rivers and bogs may suggest is ritual interest in wet environments, perhaps related to a deterioration in the climate which occured at this time, it is likely, however, that a number of complex economic and social reasons were responsible for the practice of hoarding. A huge hoard of gold objects, numbering in excess of 146 objects, was found at Mooghaun, near Ennis, Co Clare in 1854. Some of the surviving pieces may be viewed in the exhibition of prehistoric gold. The largest hoard of Bronze Age objects found in Ireland was found in the 1820s at Dowris, near Birr, Co. Offaly. The importance of the find may be judged from the fact that the findplace lends its name to the final phase of the Irish Later Bronze Age- the Dowris Phase. At least 218 bronze tools and weapons were found, which 185 survive today. A large selection has been place on exhibition.\
The Altartate Cauldron
The Altartate cauldron, found in a bog near Clores, Co. Monoghan during turf cutting in 1933, is made of poplar with yew handles. The first suggests the continuation of certain Later Bronze Age traditions into the Early Iron Age although its form differs from that of Later Bronze Age cauldrons. A band of ornament below the rim, which may be compared closely with that found on certain Early Iron Age spears, suggest that the cauldron may have been carved during the 2nd century BC.
Prehistoric Ireland: From the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the Iron Age.
(I sort of started in the middle of the Bronze Age and didn't realize it until I got here... oops lol)This exhibition is intended as an introduction to Ireland's prehistoric past. It has been arranged on a chronological basis to lead the visitor through the major changes and developments of the period. Artifacts have been chosen to highlight particular aspects of each prehistoric era. The display provides a context for the exhibition of prehistoric gold and is followed chronologically by the Treasury.
Mesolithic Fish Traps Clowanstown, Co. Meath (5300-4730 BC)
In 2008, at the edge of a raised blog in Clowanstown Co. Meath, four conical fish traps were excavated. Organic Mesolithic artifacts like these are exceptionally rare in Ireland and, due to their fragile nature a large-scale conservation project was undertaken. Although flattened when found, the traps retained a distinctive V-shape with evidence for constrictions at the open ends. Slender rods and twisted wefts of alder, birch and rosewood were woven together using an open-twined technique. The traps would originally have been positioned on the bed of a small lake adjacent to a mooring or walkway. Also found at the site was a possible model boat from a pomaceous fruitwood such as apple, pear or hawthorn, dating to between c. 5300-5050 BC, and a number of lithics.
The Palaeolithic Period
The earliest stage of the Stone Age- the palaeolithic period (where do they come up these names?) began with the emergence of humankind and the use of stone tools more than one million years ago. It covered most of the last great Ice Age until the final retreat of the ice sheets around 12,000 BC. During part of the last Ice age human groups could have settled in parts of Munster, but no material comparable to the Palaeolithic age which may date between 300,000 - 400,000 BC have been found in Ireland but there is no certainty that they represent evidence of human settlement here. A flint flake from Mell, Co. Louth, found in glacial gravel, is thought to have been transported to Ireland by moving ice during the last Ice Age. A hand-axe from Coolalisheen, Co. cork, found two feet down in a garden, resembles hand-axes found in southern Britain. This object and a second hand-axe from Dun Aonghasa, a large promontory for on Inishmore, Aran Islands, Co. Galway, may have been brought to Ireland in recent times.
Reconstructed Passage Tomb (3400-2800 BC)
Passage Tombs were burial monuments, constructed to house the cremated remains of the dead and for other ritual purposes. Usually, each tomb consisted of a chamber at the end of a passage, covered by a mound or cairn of stones. Large stones were used, normally, to build the passages and chambers and to construct retaining kerbs around the edges of the mounds. In many cases the large stones were decorated with abstract designs. Passage Tombs were usually built in cemeteries sometimes with a large central tomb surrounded by smaller satellites.
Was discovered in 1902
Transport and Communication
In the heavily wooded environment of early Ireland, communication could most easily be affected along rivers and lakes or across lightly wooded higher ground. Clearance of the forest cover for agricultural and the establishment of fixed settlements helped the development of communications. Before the wheel was invented, goods could only be transported on the backs of humans and oxen or by boat. Ancient boats were made of organic materials which survive only under special circumstances. The earliest, used both on the open sea and on inland waters, are likely to have been skin-covered vessels ancestral to modern currachs and coracles. Simple craft known as longboats are common finds, preserved in bogs and lakes. The oldest surviving Irish boat is a huge logboat from Addergoole Bog, Lurgan, Co. Galway, made at the beginning of the Earlier Bronze Age around 2500 BC. Logboats, which are known in a range of sizes, were made by hollowing out a straight tree trunk- normally of oak- using an adze. Sophisticated composite wooden boats, which are known from the Middle Bronze Age in Britain, were probably made here too.
Dugout Canoe
This unfinished vessel was found in Lurgan townland, Addergoole Bog, near Tuam Co. Galway in 1902. It measures 15.25m in length and is one of the longest in Europe. It is made of a hollowed oak tree and is wider at the stern than at the bow. It has a central ridge running along the floor, probably an internal keel. Dugout canoes were used over a long period of time in Ireland from the Bronze Age to the later Middle Ages. This example has been dated to around 2500 B.C.
History of the Collection 1 (a collection, not sure which one so much stuff was there)
Soon after its foundation in 1785, the Royal Irish Academy appointed an Antiquities Committee to look after all matters relating to antiquarian pursuits, including the formation of a collection of archaeological artifacts. Irish prehistoric gold ornaments found an important place in the collection from the beginning. Throughout the succeeding century many prominent antiquarians including General Vallancey, George Petrie and Sir William Wilde served on the Committee. The collection grew by donations and purchases and gradually developed into a museum of Irish antiquities. Important acquisitions included the gold torcs found at Tara, Co. Meath purchased by public subscription.A very significant addition was made in 1841 by the purchase through public subscription of the collection of the late Dean Dawson of St. Patrick's Cathedral. It included the large gold dress-fastner from Castlekelly, Co. Roscommon as well as the bulla from the Bog of Allen and the gold collars from Ardcrony and Borrisnoe, Co. Tipperary. Other important pieces of prehistoric goldwork were acquired by the purchase of the collection of Major Sirr also in 1841. Throughout the 19th century the collection of Bronze Age goldwork continued to grow. Meanwhile many important papers were published in the Academy's Transactions and Proceedings. Following an agreement between the Academy and the governemnt the complete collection of antiquities was transferred to the new Museum of Science and Art in Kildare Street in 1890.
Bronze Age- Sheet Gold Work
The goldsmiths of the Later Bronze Age excelled in the production of ornaments made from gold sheet. In Ireland the finest sheet gold products were the large gold collars, often called 'gorgets' and gold ear-spools.Each collar is made from a number of separate pieces usually five or seven. The collar is made in one place while the terminals are each composed of two separate discs. Each lower disc is stitched to the ends of the collar using a twisted gold wire. The upper and lower disc are held together by turning the edge of the bottom one over so that it holds the upper on in place or, occasionally, by using an extra piece as a biding strip. Nine gold collars or fragments of collars survive. Almost certainly more existed but they have been lost or melted down.
A very close similarity exists between ear-spools and the terminals of the large gold collars both in terms of construction and decoration. Gorgets were worn on the upper part of the chest, the position being determined by the length of a chain or cord worn across the back of the neck.
The Mooghaun Hoard 1
In March 1854 workmen building a railway between Limerick and Ennis, near a lake in the townland of Mooghaun North, about 2 miles from Newmarket-on-Fergus, Co. Clare, accidentally discovered a great hoard of gold objects. Accounts of the discovery differ in detail, but it seems that in the immediate aftermath of the discovery much of the contents of the hoard was sold to dealers and jewelers and ended up in the melting pot. Some reports say that the hoard was found in a small, rectangular structure made of stones in which the objects were arranged in layers.The exact composition of the hoard will probably never be known but in June 1854 a portion of it consisting of 145 objects weighing nearly 11 lbs, (5 kilos) was exhibited by Dr. J. H. Todd at a meeting of the Royal Irish Academy. The Academy purchased 12 objects for its collection - 5 collars, 2 neck-rings, a gold ring and 4 bracelets. Later three more bracelets believed to be from the hoard were acquired bringing the total of original objects in the National Collections to 15. The British Museum possesses 14 objects including 1 collar and 13 bracelets.
A Necklace of Gold Beads? (picture above)
Perhaps the most mysterious of all the gold ornaments of the Later Bronze Age are the hollow gold balls found at Tumna, Co. Roscommon in 1834. 11 balls are said to have been found when a group of men were tilling land near Tumna church. Each ball is made in two sections which are soldered together. They are perforated which suggests that they were intended to be strung together. The graduated size of the balls also suggests that they were strung as beads in a necklace.After the discovery it seems that the balls were divided amongst various collectors. Gradually over a period of about 150 years 9 of the original 11 were acquired by the Royal Irish Academy and the National Museum of Ireland. One is in the collections of the British Museum but the whereabouts of the one remaining ball are unknown. Among the noted collectors who at one time owned parts of the find were Dean Dawson, Major Sirr, Colonel Clements and the Duke of Northumberland.
The Later Bronze Age
Cast and Hammered Bar Goldwork: Various types of objects are made from cast ingots or bars of gold are known.Bracelets: are the most numerous type. They are made from bars of different thicknesses with simple ends which may be solid or hollow. Occasionally the bracelet may be decorated with simple incised patterns using motifs such as hatched triangles, zig-zags and lozenges.
Dress-fashioners: are thought to have been used to close a garment opening by using double button holes or loops. They were made in a range of sizes including some very heavy ones such as that from Cones, Co Monaghan which weighs over 1000 grammes. The terminals are deeply hollowed and may also be decorated with grooved lines and incised designs. While most are made in one piece the terminals of the larger, heavier examples are usually made separately and soldered on. Sometimes the 'bow' or handle may be hollow, perhaps to economize on the amount of gold used.
Sleeve-fasteners: are smaller versions of dress-fashioners but differ from them in that the bows are deeply grooved. The terminals are flat circular expansions of the bow. Similar small rings are also known but their function is not understood.
Corlea Figure
The Corlea figure appears to be an Iron Age example of an anthropomorphic boundary marker of a type known from Bronze Age contexts at Ralaghan, Co. Cavan and Cloncreen, Co. Offaly. It may have been intended to represent the territorial god who in continential Celtic contexts was known as Teutates, a name cognate with Irish tuatha (people or tribe). In the ancient Irish tales, kings and heroes swore 'by the gods by whom my people swear' a clear reference to the territorial deities.Made of ash and originally about 5m in length the Corlea figure was found reused as building material in a bog road, constructed in 148 BC, that lies close to a barony boundary.
Warning: some pictures may gross some people out. They grossed me out but at the same it was cool. Seeing persevered dead people is cool and gross all at once.
Baronston West man (man above). Early Iron Age 200-400 AD
Baronstown West Man was found during peat cutting in 1953 having lain at a depth of at least 1.9m in the bog. A layer of interwoven birch or hazel sticks overlay the remains, which were those of a male aged between 25 and 30 years. A bundle of sticks tied with a withy overlay the left shin. A woolen textile joined along the back fo the body with wooden pegs extended to the feet in the manner of a shroud. Outside the textile there was a semi-circular leather cloak.The body was not well preserved. It was found at the southern edge of a bog along which three separate deposits of bog butter were also found, one of which (from Rosberry- on display elsewhere in the exhibition) has been dated to the Early Iron Age between 400-350 BC. This edge of the bog lies in proximity to the boundary between the barony of Connell and that of Offaly West, which was the ancient boundary of the kingdom of Ui Failge. The Hill of Allen, associated with the legendary hero Fionn MacCumahll, overlooks the bog to the west.
Kingly Attire
In annalistic accounts, the wearing of gold neck ornaments, finger rings, broaches, multicolored garments and, in one noted instance an elaborate embroidered cloak are attributed to various early kings of Tara. The range of objects referred to is mirrored by Iron Age votive finds from bogs and rivers. The 'Petrie crown' and Runnabehy horns are part of horned headdresses comparable to examples depicted on the Gundestrup cauldron.Also present on the Gundestrup cauldron are collars of the type represented by the gold collars from a bog at Ardnaglug, Co. Roscommon, while the armist from Ballymahors, Co. Meath, may be compared with the metal and leather armlet worn by Oldcroghan Man.
Gallagh Man and Baronstown West Man each wore leather capes. However neither was of the same quality as a cape found during the nineteenth century in a bog at Derrykeighan, Co. Antirm. The Derrykeighan cape appears not to have been associate with a burial and so it may represent and item of inauguration attire that was deposited as a votive offering on a tribal boundary.
Clonycavan Man Early Iron Age 192-201 Bc
In February 2003 workers at a peat extraction works in Ballivor, Co. Meath, discovered the preserved body of a man in a peat-screening machine. Investigation indicated that he had lain originally in a deep bog at Clonycanvan on the Meath county boarder with Westmeath. Although damaged from the waist down due to the action of a peat- harvesting machine, the internal organs were preserved partially and the head was intact with a clearly distinguishable face. Hair on the chin (and you could see the hair. It was sooooo creepy!!!) and upper lip suggested the former presence of a mustache and a goatee beard.Clonycavan Man had a very distinctive hair style. On the back of his head the hair was cute to about 2.5cm long with the rest of the hair, which was about 20cm long, gathered into a bundle on the top of this head. Clonycavan man, who was over 25 years of age at the time of his death, was of slight build and estimated to be no more than about 5 feet 9 inches tall.
A scientific technique involving analysis of his hair indicated that for four months prior to his death Clonycavan Man had a plant-based diet suggesting that he may have a died in the autumn before the onset of a meat-rich winter diet. He was killed by a series of blows to his head, probably from an axe. He also suffered a 40cm long cut to his abdomen suggesting disembowelment. The body was naked when found.
The extraordinary hairstyle of Clonycavan Man was held in place by the application of a sort of hair gel made form resin imported from France or Spain. This suggests that he was a high status person who commanded the resources necessary to obtain exotic foreign imports. the bog where the body was found lies on the boundary between the ancient kingdoms of Brega and Mide.
Bog Bodies Research Project: list of specialities
Following the discovery of two Iron Age bog bodies at Clonycavan, Co Meath and Oldcroghan, Co. Offaly, the Bog Bodies Research Project was established in 2003 to examine scientifically and document the human remains using a multidisciplinary team of international specialists. Some thirty-five specialists, of whom many had vast expierence in the field of bog body research, worked in conjuction with staff from the Irish Antiquities Division and Conservation Department of the National Museum of Irleand. A wide variety of anaysis was carried out on the bog bodies and their respective findspots including:Archaelogical excavation and survey of findspots of bog bodies
Metal detection survey of findspots
Environmental analysis of findspots.
Anatomical analysis
Pathological analysis
Fingerprinting of Oldcroughan Man
Photographic documentation
Graphic recording
Reconstruction of body form/build of Oldcroghan Man.
Oldcroughan Man Early Iron Age
Oldcroughan Man was over 25 years of age at the time of his death. He was a tall powerfully built mean whose height is estimated at about 6 feet 3 1/2 inches. Uncovered in May 2003 during the digging of a bog drain along a parish boundary, the remains consist of a severed torso that had been decapitated. However the surviving part of the body is in remarkable condition with superbly perserved hands and intact internal organs. On the upper left arm is a plaited leather armband with metal mounts bearings Celtic ornaments. A scientific technique involving analysis of his fingernails indicates that Oldcroughan Man at a diet with substantial meat component during the four months prior to his death, which may suggest that he died early in the year before plant-based foods became plentiful. Analysis of the stomach contents revealed that he had eaten a final meal of cereals and buttermilk, in contrast to his regular meat-rich diet.A stab wound to his chest killed Oldcroughan Man. However, a defence-wound on one arm indicates that he tried to fend off the fatal assault. Although the precise sequence cannot be determined the deceased was decapitated, had his nipples cut and his thorax severed from his abdomen. The cutting of the nipples is highly significant. Sucking a king's nipples was an ancient Irish form of submission and the mutilation perpetrated on Oldcroughan Man would have rendered him ineligible for kingship. Carefully manicured fingernails and an absence of wear to his hands indicating that he did not engage in heavy manual work, demonstrating that Oldcroughan Man was a person of high social rank. Twisted hazel ropes known as withies were inserted through cuts made in the upper arms and may have been employed to fasten down the body to the bottom of a bog pool. However, the use of withies may also have invoked a protective taboo safeguarding the boundary. The parish boundary on which the body was found is at that point co-extensive with the boundary of two ancient territories (Tuath Cruachain and Tuath na Cille) ruled by minor kings and is close to Croughan Hill where the over-kings of Ui Failge were inaugurated.
Gallagh Man Early Iron Age 400-200 BC
Gallagh Man is an adult male whose preserved remains were discovered at a depth of 2.9m in a bog during peat cutting in 1821. Although well preserved when discovered the remains have become desiccated over the years since their discovery and the hair and a stubbly beard have largely disappeared. The body was naked except for a deerskin cape that extended to the knees. The cape was tied at the neck with a band of willow rods that may have been a garrotte used to strangle him. The body lay on its left side, slightly flexed at the waist and knees. A pointed wooden post or stake stood obliquely at either side of the body. A depression on the right thigh probably preserves the position of one of these posts. The bog where the body was found is on the boundary of the ancient kingdom of Ui Mhaine.
European Bog Bodies
Over the last few centuries, peat cutters have uncovered a large number of bodies in the bogs of Denmark, the Netherlands, Germany and Britain. Those that date to the Iron Age represent killing ritual killings and therefore demonstrate that the Irish finds are but part of a broader North Western European cultural tradition. Both male and female bodies occur of people who were killed in the period 400 BC- 400AD. All were put to death in brutal fashion using a variety of means including hanging, strangling, stabbing, throat cutting, battery with a blunt instrument and hacking with an axe or sword. There is also evidence of drowning, decapitation, dismemberment and disembowelment.Tollund Man is the best known of the Danish bog bodies. His remarkably preserved face has a peaceful expression that belies the fact that he died violently, strangled by a plaited noose. A large owund on the front of his neck of Grauballe Man, Denmark, shows that his throat was cut from ear to ear. The body was well preserved and examination of his hands showed no sign of hard manual labor. Huldremose Woman, Denmark, was an adult whose arms and legs showed signs of repeated hacking. Her right arm was severed. A young female known as Yde Girl, Holland, appears to have been strangled and stabbed at the age of sixteen. At Osterby, Germany, a severed head was found wrapped in a deerskin cape. It is that of a man who may have been killed by a blow to his left temple before he was decapitated. The hair is tied in an elaborate hairstyle in the manner of the Suebi Tribe, as described by the contemporary Roman historian Tacitus. Lindow Man, England, was also struck on the head, in addition to having his throat cut and being throttled with a rope made of animal sinew. Aged in his twenties, he wore a beard and mustache and had well-manicured fingernails. In common with other bog bodies, Lindow Man consumed a cereal-based gruel as his finest meal.
Rites of Passage at Tara: The Excavation of the Mound of the Hostages
The Mound of Hostages or Duma na nGiall, is the oldest visible monument on the Hill of Tara. The mound covers a burial monument called a passage tomb built in the period just before 3,000 BC, which was used as a place to bury human remains for more than 1,500 years. The mound lies near the northern edge of a large enclosure called Raith na Rig or Rath of the Kings. The line of this enclosure was laid out so that the ancient mound would lie within it thus respecting its importance. The enclosure was built around 100 BC.The excavation of the Mound of the Hostages showed it to have a very complex history of construction and use. This exhibition displays some of the many exceptional finds found during the excavation and describes some aspects of its cultural setting in the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods. In the medieval period the mound became known as Duma na nGiall- the Mound of the Hostages because it was the place where kings exchanged hostages as guarantors for alliances and other legal agreements.
Summary of the Development of the Mound of the Hostages
First Phase 3500-3000 BC: The earliest features recorded underneath the Mound of the Hostages date from about 3500 BC and include the remains of fires, spreads of charcoal and a ditch running partially underneath the cairn. The pits and fires may have been part of ceremonial rituals which took place before for the construction of the tomb began.Second Phase 3100-2800 BC: The siting and building tomb and mound would have been carefully planned. The passage 3m in length and 1.75m high, was built with large stones. It was divided into three compartments by low sill stones and roofed with stone lintels. Three small stone cists were built against the outer walls of the passage. The tomb was covered with a cairn of stones and a thick layer of earth. An unusual series of cremated burials marked the perimeter. Over time the interior of the passage and the cists were filled with human remains and an extraordinary assemblage of objects of pottery, stone and bone.
Third Phase 2200-1500 BC: Following a period of inactivity, the passage compartments were re-opened during the Early Bronze Age to insert more burials. These were accompanied by pottery vessels and other objects. Later, when the passage could not hold any more, burials were inserted into the earthen mound. Some of these contained exceptional objects which would have been highly prized. Eventually, the mound was abandoned as a burial site but some evidence of burial in the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age was found in the immediate vicinity.
The discovery of objects of medieval to early twentieth century date shows that, over centuries, the site continued to be visited as it does to this day.
Egyptian Stuff. (I like this stuff the best. I don't know why lol)
Provence unknown. Ramesside Period, c. 1295-1069 BC
The 'block statue' shows the official in a position of piety, that of the temple guard seated on the ground with knees raised to the chin. The hieroglyphic text on the front includes the prayer for offerings, and names the man as a high official, Rey.
Animal Mummies (we had to make these out of stuff animals when I was in 6th grade. I picked the ugliest stuff animal I could find because I was overly attached to my stuffed animals... well still am, but shhhh its a secret!
During the first millennium BC, animal cults became an increasingly prominent features of Egyptian religious activity, reaching the peak of their popularity during the Ptolemaic period, 305-30 BC, and the Roman era. The Egyptians did not worship the animals themselves; each species was considered as the earthly representative of a particular god or goddess. At many religious centers large cemeteries have been discovered, containing vast numbers of mummies of animals or birds sacred to the local deity. Among the most numerous of mummies of cats (associated with the goddess Bastet) and ibises (representative of the god Thoth). These creatures were elaborately wrapped, and were dedicated to the diety as votive offerings by pilgrims. Radiological examination of cat mummies shows that some had been deliberately killed by having their necks broken, and it is possible they they were bred on the temple estates, specifically for mummification.Sorry cat lovers....
Coffin of Diefiawet, containing a Ptolemaic Mummy (picture below)
Provenience unknown Coffin: 26th Dynasty 664-525 BC; Mummy: Ptolemaic Mummy period, 305-30 BCThe mummy is that of an adult female with the arms crossed over the breast. X-rays have revealed that the body has suffered post- mortem mutilation; both the hands and the feet are missing and dummies made of linen have been substituted by the embalmers. A mask, amuletic collar and apron of painted cartonnage have been placed over the outer wrappings.
The coffin reproduces the appearance of the mummified body. Such anthropoid cases were originally intended to serve as alternative dwellings for the spirit, in the event of the body itself being destroyed. In addition, through their form, coloring and iconography, they helped to identify the deceased symbolically with the god Osiris. The surfaces of Diefiawet's coffin were covered with painted scenes and hieroglyphic texts to assist and protector her in the passage into the afterlife. Isis and Nephthys, the sisters of Osiris, protect the foot and head of the mummy, and the goddess Nut spread her winged arms over the breast. A series of gods arranged along the sides of the case provide additional diving protection. The inscriptions in the center of the lid begin with the parentage of Diefiawet, who was the daughter of a temple doorkeeper. They continue with the full text of Chapter 89 of the Book of the Dead, a magical spell to ensure that the ba (spirit) should be united with the body after death.
Mummy of the Lady Tentdinebu in Wooden Coffin and Cartonnage Case
Probably from Thebes. 22nd Dynasty 945-716 BC.The mummy wrapped in linen bandages, is enclosed in a body-shaped envelope of cartonnage- a lightweight material composed of layers of gummed linen and plaster, which could be molded to the desired shape. The surface is decorated with texts and religious images in brilliant colors. On the upper body, a ram-headed falcon representing the sun god embraces the deceased. Between this and a second falcon are figures of the four Sons of Horus, minor deities who protected the internal organs of the body. A central inscription addressed to the sun god requests funery offerings on behalf of the dead lady.
The wooden coffin is also painted and inscribed, but the details have been obscured by a coat of thick varnish.
X-rays of the mummy have shown that Tentdinebu died at an advanced age. Artificial eyes were inserted into the eye sockets and the thorax, abdomen and pelvis were filled with dense packing material- all features typical of Egyptian embalming techniques in the 21st and 22nd Dynasties.
Roman Information
Life & Death In The Roman World
Introduction:
The objects in this exhibition were collected primarily in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when it was the aim of the Museum to have an all-encompassing collection representing Irish and European art throughout the ages. To ensure this, reproductions of important artifacts such as the Hildesheim (Germany) silver hoard were bought. These reproductions are displayed here alongside original artifacts from places as geographically diverse as Egypt, Austria, England and Ireland Many of the objects have been in storage since the early 1920s.The neighboring Etruscan people were an early assimilation into the expanding Roman state. A display of Etruscan material introduces the exhibition followed by an exploration of the themes of Everyday Roman Life; Death, Burial and the Afterlife; Religion; Personal Adornment and Dress; Entrainment and Imperial Power in the Roman world. The exhibition concludes with the introduction of Christianity.
Daily Life
The paterfamilias (father) looked after the family and led all its religious activities at the household shrine. Wives with the help of slaves organized the domestic affairs including the education of the children. Boys from the age of fourteen were considered adults and wore and adult toga. Marriages were arranged by the parents and girls could marry at the age of twelve.The wealthy lived in private houses often with a garden, an underground cistern to collect rainwater and a drainage system. Some of the houses had bathrooms but public baths were available for all. Most of the city dwellers lived in apartment blocks usually built in timber and without running water. Residents used public latrines and collected water from adjacent fountains. With narrow streets and an underground central heating system of open fires (a hypocaust), whole blocks of apartments often burnt to the ground. Private houses had kitchens with a staff of slaves to prepare meals, but because of the risk of fire apartment dwellers were not permitted to light fires and used the local inn for their main meals.
Many private house had furniture, mosaic flooring, fresco covered walls, and a plentiful supply of oil lamps for light.
The Etruscans and Burial Customs
The cemeteries of the Etruscans have revealed details of the brilliant civilization that flourished from the eighth century BC. Urn containing the ashes of the deceased were surrounded with jewellery, fine pottery cups and bowels, perfumes, armor, small figurines of gods and goddesses in bronze or terracotta and even a bronze throne.Wall paintings in tombs portrayed a lifestyle of lavish dinner parties, hunting scenes, extravagantly dressed and bejeweled ladies, and well furnished rooms as if to surround the dead with images of life. The pottery was made of very fine clay and burnished to a rich black color sometimes with incised designs. As the Etrsucan area was rich in minerals, they were accomplished metal workers, producing many fine pieces of bronze and silver ware.
Personal Adornment and Dress
'Clothing is either intended for the use of men, women, or children, or is common to both sexes, or is used by slaves'An individual's dress was dictated by fashion and status in society. Undyed or bleached linen or wool tunics were the basic item of clothing and were usually worn with a belt around the waist or under the bust. Women's tunics were longer and fuller than men's.
During the first and second centuries AD women wore short-sleeved and gap-sleeved tunics (sleeves were fastened at intervals down the outside of the arm). During the Late Republic married women or matrons wrote the stola over their tunics.
In the third century AD unbelted long-sleeved dalamaticus were fashionable. Striped decoration of the past centuries developed into decorative panels on the front, back and shoulder's of men's tunics. These woolen tapestry panels were purple and geometric at first but from the fourth century developed into multi-colored bands and roundels. Women's tunics did not have roundels at this time but the stripes were sometimes decorated. By the end of the century women wore a tight, long-sleeved undertunic and a wider overtunic.
Cosmetics of powdered chalk for face powder and plant dyes for lip-gloss were stored in small bottles.
Entertainment
With as many as 115 public festivals in Rome during the reign of Augustan the civilians enjoyed ample leisure time.The most popular places of entertainment were public parks and gardens, public baths, and circus for horse and chariot races, the arena and the theater. The best-known baths in Rome, named after the emperor Caracalla, could accommodate 1,500 people. Here Romans used perfume oil to clean the body and removed the oil with strigils (scrapers made from wood,metal, or bone).
Chariot races were held in the circus. The Circus Maximus in Rome could hold 250,000 people. Four teams raced in chariots drawn by two, four, or six horses around a central reservation. The emperor or other important persons directed the race from the royal box. Large arenas, holding upwards of 10,000 people, were the venue for gladiator fights and wild animals displays. Many fights-ended in death for animals and gladiators.
Drama was another well-attended event. In 55 BC the first stone-built theater was constructed in the Campus Martuis, Rome by the Roman general Pompey. It could accommodate 25,000 people. The seating was arranged in a semicircle around the stage with benches near the stage reserved for senators or other available people.
Some of this information may be slightly wrong only because it was blurry and at times hard to read.
Death and the Afterlife
The Romans named the spirits of the dead the manes. To some the spirit descended to the underworld (Hades) having crossed the river Styx. During the Republican era burial was by cremation or inhumation but by the second century AD even emperors were not cremated. Funerals prepared the dead person for the journey to the afterlife. Relatives wore death masks of the deceased during the procession to the tomb and often carried death masks of ancestors. By law, only the emperor was buried within the city limits, and the cemeteries which had both elaborate sarcophagi and simple grave markers, were situated along the main roads leading out of the cities. In the early Christian era underground graves, known as the catacombs, were excavated in the rock under the city.The Romans surrounded the dead with images of life. Urns containing the remains of the deceased were flanked by ceremonial objects or objects of daily life such as brooches, bracelets and glass vessels. These accompanied the dead person into the afterlife. These objects demonstrate that there was a belief in the afterlife. Figurines of gods and votive statues found all over the empire are probably from household shrines or were for offerings in temples.
Religion in Early Rome
Every Roman house had its shrine to the household gods, the numina who looked after property and material possessions, and the lares who looked after the members of the household. Many houses had an image of a god, a herm, on a pedestal outside the main entrance.The main gods were similar to the gods of Greek mythology, Jupiter (the Greek Zeus) was the most important ruler of all the gods. The people believed in different gods and goddesses for different aspects of like - Juno (Hera) the goddess for women, Venus (Aphrodite) for love and beauty, Mars (Ares) for way, Bacchus (Dionysus) for wine, Apollo for sun, healing and music, Neptune (Poseidon) for seafarers, Pluto for the underworld- and many more.
Sacrificers to the gods could be offered only by the temple priests. These ceremonies took place on an altar outside the temple. Animals were slaughtered and parts of the animal were thrown onto a fire for the gods. Incense was also burned on these altars.
As the empire expanded other gods were included in the religious pantheon. For example the Egyptian goddess of corn and earth, Isis, was assimilated with Demeter in the Graeco- Egyptian cult. She was often represented with her infant Horus.
So this will probably be one of the last few blogs I do. I have a couple of things I want to do in Limerick, but my traveling budget is pretty much gone. Plus I prefer landscapes over museums and history. History is interesting but I'd rather go to the actual place history happened. So I'll have a couple more when I do the few things in Limerick and probably one a little after I get back home to talk about reverse cultural shock.
Until then! Hope you enjoyed it.
Very, very informative. The State Corridor resembles the library archways, I thought. I like the logboat. it looks HUGE and really, really long. I googled the Clonycavan Man and got a really cool, close-up pic of the dude. Anyway, its sad to think that this is the end of a two year fascinating study-abroad journey. I'm so happy that you got this AMAZING opportunity, Elizabeth. You've created memories to share and cherish for the rest of your life. Be happy, be well. I love and miss you more then you could ever know. I'm proud of you and I cherish you my little-bit. :)
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